Getting started with Lojban (alpha)
<9. Relative clauses>
Relative clauses
There is also another type of subordinate bridi: relative clauses. They are sentences which add some description to a sumti. Indeed, the "which" in the previous sentence marked the beginning of a relative clause in English describing relative clauses. In Lojban, they come in two flavors, and it might be worth distinguishing the two kinds before learning how to express them.
The two kinds are called restrictive and non-restrictive (or incidential) relative clauses. An example would be good here:
My brother, who is two meters tall, is a politician.
This can be understood in two ways. I could have several brothers, in which case saying he is two meters tall will let you know which brother I am talking about. Or I might have only one brother, in which case I am simply giving you additional information.
In English as well as Lojban we distinguish between these two kinds – the first interpretation is restrictive (since it helps restrict the possible brothers I might be talking about), the second non-restrictive. When speaking English, context and tone of voice (or in written English, punctuation) helps us distinguish between these two, but not so in Lojban. Lojban uses the constructs poi...ku'o and noi...ku'o for restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses, respectively.
poi begin restrictive relative clause (can only attach to sumti).
noi begin non-restrictive relative clause (can only attach to sumti).
ku'o end relative clause.
ke'a pro-sumti: refers to the sumti to which the relative clause it attached..
citka x1 eats/ingests/consumes x2.
plise x1 is an apple [fruit] of species/strain x2.
Let's have a Lojbanic example:
Here the noi...ku'o is placed just after lo se dunda ku, so it applies to the gift. To be strict, the relative clause does not specify what it is, which is an apple, but given the context we can safely assume that it means that the gift is an apple. If we want to be absolutely sure that it indeed was the gift that was an apple, we use the word ke'a, which is a Lojban pronoun (more on them later) representing the sumti to which the relative clause is attached. In practice, ke'a is often omitted for brevity when it would be in the x1 place of the relative clause. If context is sufficiently clear, it could even be omitted for other places as well.
To underline the difference between restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses, let's have two more examples, this time with poi...ku'o.
Recall that terminators are often elidable, so let's try to rewrite the previous sentences omitting them where possible:
| Original sentence | Simplified sentence |
|---|---|
| mi citka lo se dunda ku noi plise ku'o | mi citka lo se dunda noi plise |
| mi citka lo plise ku poi do dunda ke'a mi ku'o | mi citka lo plise poi do dunda ke'a mi |
| xu do dunda lo mlatu ku poi melbi ku'o mi | xu do dunda lo mlatu poi melbi ku'o mi |
Exercises
It's now time for you to attempt a few more translations. You will need the following new words:
vecnu x1 [seller] sells/vends x2 [goods/service/commodity] to buyer x3 for amount/cost/expense x4.
skami x1 is a computer for purpose x2.
pilno x1 uses/employs x2 [tool, apparatus, machine, agent, acting entity, material] for purpose x3.
Translate the following sentences from Lojban into English:
| Sentence | Possible translation |
|---|---|
| mi vecnu lo gerku noi melbi | I am selling a dog, which is beautiful. |
| xu do citka lo plise poi melbi | Do you eat apples that are beautiful? |
| xu do vecnu lo skami poi mi pilno ke'a | Did you sell the computer that I was using? |
Now, translate the following sentences from English into Lojban:
| Sentence | Possible translation |
|---|---|
| I am talking about the house that is yellow. | mi tavla fi lo zdani poi pelxu |
| Did you like the computer that I donated? | xu do nelci lo skami poi mi dunda |
| I promised to sell the computer that you donated. | mi nupre lo nu {mi} vecnu lo skami poi do dunda {ke'a} |
Practice
As usual, before proceeding to the next lesson, get some practice with interactive exercises – look for the "Practice" button nearby!
Beware that exercises loop indefinitely, so feel free to stop once you feel you've had enough. And be sure to revisit exercises on different days, to benefit from the spacing effect.
Lesson plan
- Lesson
- Relative clauses
- poi vs noi
- ke'a and ku'o
- Relative clauses
- New exercises
- Choose "noi" vs "poi" (OK)
Brivla
dunda x1 [donor] gives/donates gift/present x2 to recipient/beneficiary x3 [without payment/exchange]
pelxu x1 is yellow/golden [color adjective]
zdani x1 is a nest/house/lair/den/[home] of/for x2
tavla x1 talks/speaks to x2 about subject x3 in language x4
pendo x1 is/acts as a friend of/to x2 (experiencer); x2 befriends x1
prenu x1 is a person/people (noun) [not necessarily human]; x1 displays personality/a persona
mlatu x1 is a cat/[puss/pussy/kitten] [feline animal] of species/breed x2; (adjective:) x1 is feline
ctuca x1 teaches audience x2 ideas/methods/lore x3 (du'u) about subject(s) x4 by method x5 (event)
nelci x1 is fond of/likes/has a taste for x2 (object/state)
gerku x1 is a dog/canine/[bitch] of species/breed x2
melbi x1 is beautiful/pleasant to x2 in aspect x3 (ka) by aesthetic standard x4
sutra x1 is fast/swift/quick/hastes/rapid at doing/being/bringing about x2 (event/state)
lojbo x1 reflects [Loglandic]/Lojbanic language/culture/nationality/community in aspect x2
ciska x1 inscribes/writes x2 on display/storage medium x3 with writing implement x4; x1 is a scribe
djuno x1 knows fact(s) x2 (du'u) about subject x3 by epistemology x4
nupre x1 (agent) promises/commits/assures/threatens x2 (event/state) to x3 [beneficiary/victim]
cusku x1 (agent) expresses/says x2 (sedu'u/text/lu'e concept) for audience x3 via expressive medium x4
gleki x1 is happy/gay/merry/glad/gleeful about x2 (event/state)
citka x1 eats/ingests/consumes (transitive verb) x2
plise x1 is an apple [fruit] of species/strain x2
vecnu x1 [seller] sells/vends x2 [goods/service/commodity] to buyer x3 for amount/cost/expense x4
skami x1 is a computer for purpose x2
pilno x1 uses/employs x2 [tool, apparatus, machine, agent, acting entity, material] for purpose x3
Cmavo
mi pro-sumti: me/we the speaker(s)/author(s); identified by self-vocative
do pro-sumti: you listener(s); identified by vocative
ti pro-sumti: this here; immediate demonstrative it; indicated thing/place near speaker
ta pro-sumti: that there; nearby demonstrative it; indicated thing/place near listener
zo'e pro-sumti: an elliptical/unspecified value; has some value which makes bridi true
lo veridical descriptor: the one(s) that really is(are) ...
ku elidable terminator: end description, modal, or negator sumti; often elidable
fa sumti place tag: tag 1st sumti place
fe sumti place tag: tag 2nd sumti place
fi sumti place tag: tag 3rd sumti place
fo sumti place tag: tag 4th sumti place
fu sumti place tag: tag 5th sumti place
se 2nd conversion; switch 1st/2nd places
te 3rd conversion; switch 1st/3rd places
ve 4th conversion; switch 1st/4th places
xe 5th conversion; switch 1st/5th places
xu discursive: true-false question
ma pro-sumti: sumti question (what/who/how/why/etc.); appropriately fill in sumti blank
mo pro-bridi: bridi/selbri/brivla question
na bridi contradictory negator; scope is an entire bridi; logically negates in some cmavo compounds
go'i pro-bridi: preceding bridi; in answer to a yes/no question, repeats the claim, meaning yes
su'u abstractor: generalized abstractor (how); x1 is [bridi] as a non-specific abstraction of type x2
nu abstractor: generalized event abstractor; x1 is state/process/achievement/activity of [bridi]
du'u abstractor: predication/bridi abstractor; x1 is predication [bridi] expressed in sentence x2
sedu'u compound abstractor: sentence/equation abstract; x1 is text expressing [bridi] which is x2
kei elidable terminator: end abstraction bridi (often elidable)
vau elidable: end of sumti in simple bridi; in compound bridi, separates common trailing sumti
cu elidable marker: separates selbri from preceding sumti, allows preceding terminator elision
poi restrictive relative clause; attaches subordinate bridi with identifying information to a sumti
noi non-restrictive relative clause; attaches subordinate bridi with incidental information
ke'a pro-sumti: relativized sumti (object of relative clause)
ku'o elidable terminator: end NOI relative clause; always elidable, but preferred in complex clauses
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